Chapter 6 Section 2

Here's the second half of Chapter 6, or more really like the other 3/4 of Chapter 6. It's a little plain and lacking pictures, but I'll attempt and spice it up tomorrow. (It's cooler because I did it on Word first :D)

I. The Imperial Crisis

After the costly fighting of the Seven Years’ War Great Britain had to consolidate its gains. It needed to protect its North American territory, tighten the administration, and make the colonies as profitable as possible. To centralize its empire, Great Britain left a standing army of several thousand troops in America after the Seven Years’ War. It did this for the needs of centralization and also to prevent France from trying to regain its lost territory.

A. New Troubles on the Frontier

The British were worried about peace on the frontier because the Indians were on edge now that the French were gone. Because of the absence of the French, English traders and settlers would swarm into the West. After Pontiac’s rebellion the British administrators used their forces in America to enforce the Proclamation of 1763. This order prohibited white settlement past the crest of the Appalachian Mountains, keeping English settlers on the Eastern seaboard, where they were more easily subject to the control of the empire.

B. George Grenville’s New Measures

The British troops residing in the American colonies also by 1764 were there to enforce American acceptance of other new and sensible measures for tightening the empire. George Grenville was the first lord of treasury of England who was in charge of solving the financial problems of England after the Seven Years’ War. Britain had a massive deficit at the end of the war, and also had to pay for the supporting troops in the American colonies. The colonists, Grenville discovered, paid relatively low taxes and import duties. The low customs duties were because colonial merchants evaded the Molasses Act of 1733. The merchants bribed British customs officials and imported molasses from the French and the Dutch. Grenville’s first act he passed was the Revenue Act of 1764, also known as the Sugar Act. Grenville intended to enforce this new duty and to crack down on smugglers. Those who were caught were tried in admiralty courts which were headed by royally appointed judges rather than colonial judges. This act was intended mainly to yield revenue. The Currency Act of 1764 prohibited the colonies from making their paper money legal tender. The Quartering Act of 1765 contributed to the cost of keeping British forces in America. The Stamp Act of that same year placed taxes on legal documents, customs papers, newspapers, almanacs, college diplomas, playing cards, and dice. These acts passed by Parliament dampened the postwar optimism of the colonials.

C. The Beginning of Colonial Resistance

The colonials in America believed that if property guaranteed liberty, then no group of people should be taxed without their consent or that of their elected representatives. The passing of these multiple Acts showed that Parliament had taxed the colonials without representation and had also deprived the colonials of the freedom of trial by jury, which was a freedom claimed by all other English men and women. There was a radical minority in England called the Country Party or the Opposition, who shared with the colonials a deep suspicion of power. They believed that representative government safeguarded liberty more reliably than either monarch or oligarchy did. The Opposition believed that the rulers of England had not been watched closely enough and had been corrupted. This group was revered by the political leaders in the American colonies. Grenville’s measures led some colonials to suspect that ambitious men ruling England might be conspiring against American liberties. They disliked being treated like second-class citizens. This centralization of the British government of the American colonies came at a bad time psychologically and economically. New England merchants led the opposition to the Sugar Act principally on economic grounds. The Stamp Act, however, hit all colonials and served notice that Parliament claimed the authority to tax the colonies directly and for the sole purpose of raising revenues.

D. Riots and Resolves

The passing of the Acts by Parliament provoked the first display of colonial unity. In the middle of 1765, American assemblies passed resolves denying that Parliament could tax the colonies. The leader in the protesting of the Stamp Act was Patrick Henry, a leader in Virginia’s assembly, the House of Burgesses. The Burgesses passed Henry’s resolutions upholding their exclusive right to tax Virginians, but rejected the resolve that called for outright resistance. Other colonies followed suit; taking the same stand as Virginia on the issue of taxation. In October of 1765 delegates from nine colonies convened in New York and prepared a statement and petition for the king and Parliament to repeal both the Stamp Act and the Sugar Act. The Sons of Liberty was the collection of the new resistance groups that formed and was made up of traders, lawyers, and prosperous artisans. They rallied the lower classes in opposition to the Stamp Act. Mobs in the colonial cities attacked the stamp distributors in various ways. However, they got a little out of control. By November (when the Stamp Act officially took effect), most of the stamp distributors had resigned.

E. Repeal of the Stamp Act

George III made the repeal of the Stamp Act possible when he replaced Grenville with a new first minister, the Marquis of Rockingham, who had opposed the Stamp Act and had no desire to enforce it. The Stamp Act controversy showed the colonials how they shared a political outlook with each other distinctly different from the British. Americans did not approve of the virtual representation that Grenville insisted they had. Their view, known as actual representation, emphasized that elected officials were directly accountable to their constituents. The colonies agreed unanimously that Parliament did not have the right to tax them, only the right to legislate and to regulate trade. Parliament, wanting to assert its authority, issued a Declaratory Act immediately after the repeal of the Stamp Act, which stated that Parliament had the power to make laws for the colonies “in all cases whatsoever.”

F. The Townshend Acts

Rockingham was replaced with William Pitt (in 1766) who was popular in the colonies for his leadership during the Seven Years’ War and his opposition to the Stamp Act. However, almost as soon as he took his post his health failed, and his position was passed to Charles Townshend, who’s only goal was to raise more revenue from the Americans. In 1767 he persuaded Parliament to tax the lead, paint, paper, glass, and tea that Americans imported from Britain. He also wanted to curb the power of the American assemblies. For example, Townshend suspended the New York assembly in 1767 until it agreed to obey the Quartering Act. He also paid the salaries of royal officials with some of the revenue from his new tariffs. This meant that the assemblies (who had previously paid these officials) lost that form of crucial leverage. Townshend created the American Board of Customs Commissioners, which was basically made up of tax collectors.

G. The Resistance Organizes

There were two main figureheads of the colonial resistance who were against Townshend’s efforts to centralize the empire. John Dickinson urged Americans to protest the Townshend duties by consuming fewer imported English luxuries. Samuel Adams was a leader in the Massachusetts assembly who sent a letter to all of the other colonial legislatures condemning the Townshend Acts and calling for a united American resistance. During this time, customs officials became popular targets of hatred. However, they fought back by extorting money out of American merchants for what amounted to protection money and seizing American vessels for violating royal regulations. They jacked John Hancock’s boat as well (the Liberty) which caused a night of rioting. (The boat must have been awesome). Lord Hillsborough, who was the new secretary of state for the colonies, responded to the riot by sending two regiments of troops to Boston. The Liberty riot and the arrival of British troops in Boston pushed colonial assemblies to coordinate their resistance more closely. The colonies adopted a policy of not importing or consuming British goods. The Stamp Act crisis brought about a greater form of intercolonial cooperation. “Committees of inspection” were formed to enforce the ban on trade with Britain. The “Daughters of Liberty” wore homespun clothing and served coffee instead of tea to proclaim their stance against Britain (whoa, dream big).

H. The International Sons of Liberty

The resistance supporters in the colonies felt connected with the freedom fighters throughout Europe. When Corsica was fighting for its freedom, many in the British Empire hoped that England would rally to defend Corsica, if only to keep France seizing this strategic point in the Mediterranean. The British however, did nothing. The hero of the Corsica revolt, Paoli was bought out by the British and corrupted, making the colonials wonder if they could manage to remain virtuous for very long.

I. The Boston Massacre

The colonials in Boston caused trouble for the British troops, who competed with Boston’s laboring classes for side jobs when off duty. By the year 1769, fights were breaking out between the British and the job seekers. The Boston Massacre was caused by the English soldiers who fired into a crowd which had gathered around the customhouse and was heckling the ten soldiers that guarded it. This incident dramatically increased colonial unrest, and made Parliament realize that Townshend’s duties only discouraged sales to colonials and encouraged them to produce goods at home. Lord North succeeded Townshend after he died in 1770 and repealed every tax except the duty on tea which he let stand as a symbol of Parliament’s authority (once again, dream big).

J. Resistance Revived

Because of the repeal of the Townshend Acts, the American resistance stalled for two years. But the conflict between America and England had not been resolved. When Rhode Island smugglers escaped a British ship in pursuit which had run aground. The residents of Providence then decided to burn it (fantastic idea: I was going to make a Rhode Island joke but we have people in our class who know people there). The British officials sent a commission to look into the matter and tried to bypass the colonial court system, causing resistance to flare. The assemblies created the committees of correspondence which drew up statements of American rights and grievances and distributed these documents within and among the colonies. Samuel Adams can be credited with this invention which fostered an intercolonial agreement on resistance to British measures. Parliament then passed the Tea Act of 1773 which was designed to bail out the drowning East India Company by giving them a monopoly on the trade in the Americas. Parliament tried to be sneaky by making this Act hurt American merchants but make tea cheaper for ordinary Americans. On December 16, 1773, the Boston Tea Party commenced and everyone knows what happened then.

K. The Empire Strikes Back (how original)

The British took the Boston Tea Party as confirmation that the colonies aimed at independence. Parliament then passed the Coercive Acts, which were called by the colonies the “Intolerable Acts”. The Boston Port bill closed the harbor until the colonials paid the East India Company for their losses. The Massachusetts Governor Act handed over the colony’s government to royal officials. The Impartial Administration of Justice Act (is really long) permitted any royal official accused of a crime to be tried in England. Finally, the Quartering Act allowed the British troops to occupy unoccupied private homes, buildings and barns throughout the colonies. These Coercive Acts were seen by the colonies as Parliament’s plot to enslave them. The efforts of the king and Parliament to centralize and run the colonies more efficiently was viewed by the American colonists as a conspiracy measure (disregard tone of contempt in book in this section, the author is biased). In 1774 Parliament passed the Quebec Act which established a permanent government in what had been French Canada (which was Catholic and had no representative assembly). The colonies began to call for an intercolonial congress, which led to the creation of the First Continental Congress.

II. Toward the Revolution

The First Continental Congress gathered in Massachusetts in September of 1774. The Massachusetts colony was on the verge of anarchy because its inhabitants resisted the enforcement of the Massachusetts Government Acts. (I felt like when we gave a standing ovation for the Wilsons at the Fine Arts Concert tonight that we were rebelling against anarchy too; let’s see that organ played now). Most members of the Congress also shared a common mistrust of England which was associated with vice, extravagance, and corruption. However, some colonies were more radical than others.

A. The First Continental Congress

The Congress wanted to accomplish three goals. First of all, it wanted to know how they were to justify the rights they claimed as American colonials. Secondly, they wanted to define the limits of Parliament’s power. Finally, they wanted to agree on the proper tactics for resisting the Coercive Acts. The delegates than adopted a Declaration of Rights and Grievances on October 14, 1774, asserting the right of the colonies to tax and legislate for themselves. The efforts of the conservative colonials in the group, such as Joseph Galloway, were blocked by this Declaration. Galloway wanted to propose a plan of union with Britain where a grand council of the colonies would handle all concerns, and the laws it passed were to be reviewed and/or vetoed by Parliament. No one liked this plan. The Congress stopped short of declaring that Parliament had no authority over them at all. The Congress then created the Continental Association which was an agreement to cease all trade with Britain until the Coercive Acts were repealed. Some resolves against the Coercive Acts were drawn up by Bostonians and residents of the Suffolk County which branded them as unconstitutional and called for civil disobedience to protest them. When these resolves were presented to the Congress they were endorsed but it would not prepare for war by authorizing proposals to strengthen and arm colonial militias. The Congress wanted to bring about the repeal of the coercive Acts, but it held firm against resisting any revolutionary course of action (that would have been too messy). However, its decisions drew colonials farther down the road to independence.

B. The Last Days of the British Empire in America (promising title)

Most of the colonials in America commended the achievements of the First Continental Congress. The Conservatives in society however were convinced that if independence was declared, chaos would commence. They feared that civil war would lead to anarchy without British rule (like it was doing anything productive anyway). Thomas Gage was the biggest oppose of the Continental Congress. He tried to dissolve the Massachusetts legislature but it reformed on its own into a Provincial Congress which began to arm the militia. Royal authority wasn’t doing any better outside of Boston.

C. The Fighting Begins

Basically Gage and Lord North planned to seize the leaders of the Provincial Congress to end the rebellion. However, when the British confronted the Americans at Lexington and continued on to Concord, they were routed by American rebels. The British fled back to Boston while being fired on by the colonials.

D. Common Sense

The bloodshed at Lexington Green and Concord committed colonials to a course of rebellion and independence. Thomas Paine was an Englishman who came to Philadelphia and made the American cause his own. He wrote about the age of republicanism and denounced monarchy as a foolish and dangerous form of government. He rejected the idea that colonials were or should want to be to be English. And then wrote a book about it.

Blurb at End: Over the course of two centuries colonial society and politics had evolved in such a way that for Americans an English identity no longer fit. And the prevailing assumptions in a monarchy about who should pay led to the effort to regulate and bring order to Britain’s “ungrateful” colonies. In the space of less than a generation, the logic of events made clear that despite all that the English and Americans shared; in the distribution of political power they were fundamentally at odds.

“And that’s the way the cookie crumbles.”

(Who says that on the announcements in the morning?)

Chapter 6 Section 1

Here is the first section of the overview for Chapter seis. This chapter is much more informative with more important details than the overwhelmingly social Chapter 5. No one really likes social, seeing as wars are sometimes more interesting, but no doubt this upcoming test will have some social comparison or analytical type of essay. But since I just mentioned that here, it probably won't happen. Success! Also, I'm going to try and not interrupt my study guide with points or comments as much because this chapter is a pretty serious matter, but my crystal ball says it should lighten up toward the end =D.

Chapter 6 Overview [Section One]

The Joys of Being English
(aka the strange blurb at the beginning of the chapter)

The colonials who inhabited the colonies of America enjoyed being English. They enjoyed belonging to a sophisticated society of extreme diversity which was well respected throughout the world. After the end of the Seven Years' War (which is politically incorrect, because technically the war lasted for nine years) the colonies were exceedingly proud of belonging to the largest and most powerful empire in the Western world. However, this colonial attitude abruptly changed as rumors that Britain was planning on enslaving the American colonies reached the settlers. Massachusetts led the resistance, bringing many other colonies along with it. Bostonians initiated many of the petitions and resolves against British authority. However, when those proved ineffective, riots broke out among the American colonies that led to the establishment of British troops in Boston. After the Seven Years' War, events demonstrated to even more colonials that they were not considered the political equals of the people who lived in England. Americans slowly discovered a new identity and began to declare their independence from being English.

A. The Seven Years' War
The Seven Years' War occurred for a variety of reasons, some of which aren't even mentioned in this section. Actually, after just checking, a majority of them aren't explained in detail. I understand that this chapter focuses on the American resistance to British rule, but having an understanding of the political tension and even drama that caused the SYW in the first place will be extremely beneficial.

The bigger picture: don't fret about the Europe part

I. Background to the Seven Years' War
(This includes the whole impact of Europe and the events leading up to the war in a much greater scope than the book explains. It probably won't be on the test, but if you understand these concepts it would be a bonus)

This war that occurred between many different countries in as many different areas was much more than a border/territorial dispute between French and British colonials in America. After the Spanish and the Dutch faded as power threats in America, France stood clearly as England's most serious rival in the competition for overseas empire. France was a powerful threat for many reasons: they were allied with Spain, they had a population four times larger than England's with an abundance of natural resources, and France was continental Europe's leading military power and was building a system of monopolized colonial trade. The Seven Years' War was not the only fighting that took place between France and England. In fact, it was only a small part of the wars that occurred between the two powers from 1701 to 1763. France and England competed to decide which nation would become the leading maritime power and reap the profits from overseas expansion. The tension between France and England dates back to the time of Louis XIV and the War of Spanish Succession, through the War of Austrian Succession [which became a world war that included Anglo-French conflicts in India and North America], and lead up to the start of the Seven Years' War. Even though the Seven Years' War was inconclusive in Europe, it was a decisive round in the Franco-British competition for a colonial empire. These years of global involvement, which was much greater than a mere colonial territorial battle as our book makes it seem, explain why so many outside countries, such as Spain and Prussia, as well as India, were affected by the struggles between these two countries. (okay, it's over, I promise!)

II. The Seven Years' War
(as the book explains it, not my own opinion like the above)
The Seven Years' War lasted from 1754 until 1763. Which is pretty humorous considering that that is a time period of nine years, which has already been mentioned. It pitted Britain and its ally, Prussia, against France who was allied with Austria and Spain.

French forces in the Seven Years' War

III. Overview and the Years of Defeat
1754 marked the start of the war with George Washington's defeat and surrender at Fort Necessity to the French. Britain decided that this was a good time to assert its own claims to the Ohio River valley. Major Braddock led two British regiments to confront the French at Fort Duquesne in Ohio, but they were ambushed by a party of composed of the French and Indians. Washington then saved the survivors by leading the remnants of Braddock's army in a retreat. However, the New Englanders were able to drive the Acadians (French forces) out of Nova Scotia and confiscate their land. After this successful skirmish, Britain and its allies suffered through two years of failure in their attempts to fight the French. There were many reasons for this time period of inadequacy. John Campbell, the Earl of Loudoun had been given command of the North American field of operations. However, the colonial assemblies and American soldiers abhorred Loudoun. They resisted his efforts to control the colonial troops and disregarded his commands for men and supplies. With a haphazard system such as this, the British were at a disadvantage. In addition to the problems with the British forces, the French appointed a new efficacious commanding officer: Louis Joseph marquis de Montcalm. Montcalm was able to capture key British forts and endanger the security of New York and New England. Compounding all these problems was the fact that the French were winning against the British in India at the same time. The situation became so desperate for the British that they decided to seek help from the strong nearby Indian tribes, namely the Iroquois in the North and the Creek, Choctaw, and Cherokee (the best!) in the South. However, most of these tribes adopted neutrality or joined the French. Indian attacks against the English frontier settlements began to increase.

John Campbell (Loudoun)

IV. The Years of Victory

John Campbell (or Loudoun, either-or) was replaced when William Pitt, who was a veteran English politician, came to direct the war effort. He had a strong sense of destiny and even stronger egotistical leanings. However, he was extremely effective in turning the fate of the British force around. He left the fighting in Europe to Britain's ally, Prussia, and focused the full strength of the British military to beating the French in America. Pitt's replacing of Lord Loudoun was a popular action among the colonies and renewed colonial support for the war effort. He also promised to reimburse with gold and silver the colonial assemblies who contributed. In July of 1758, the British and colonial troops were able to defeat the French fortress at Louisbourg. As the British and colonial combined troops began to rout the French from the interior, the Indians then decided to switch their allegiance to the English. The year 1759 proved enormously successful for the British war effort. The English General James Wolfe was able to win Quebec from Montcalm, but both of them were killed in the process. In 1760, the French surrender of Montreal ended the fighting in North America, although it continued elsewhere in the world for another two years (Again, I don't think you really have to worry about that detail, but it's still nice to know). The French were pushed out of North America by the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1763. Britain gained all of the French territory east of the Mississippi as well as Spanish Florida. France then had to give Spain all of its land lying west of the Mississippi.

North American divisions after the Treaty of Paris

V. Postwar Expectations

After Britain's victory against France, there was a lot of colonial pride and optimism among the American settlers. They thought that the high taxes they were having to pay would end and more land would be available for them to occupy. Also, any colonists who had anything to do with supplying items for the army or navy made good money. Colonials were proud of their contributions to the war effort, and thought that they would be given more consideration within the British empire. The British imperial officers however believed that the Americans had done a poor job of aiding the British forces. British statesmen complained that the American colonial assemblies had been stingy in supplying the army and that colonial troops were cowards when compared with the British soldiers. As for the taxes the colonies thought they would be released from, the war effort had created a large debt that would levy heavy taxes upon the Americans for years to come. Some Britons guessed that with the French removed from North America, the colonies would take steps toward independence. One such oracle was Josiah Tucker, a respected English economist. This is where the American Revolution is almost a misnomer: the Americans weren't revolutionaries in the making, they were just loyal British subjects who were pushed to the tipping point.

I really don't understand why every book has this picture

Hurray for the end of Section 1.

Section 2 wasn't cooperating, so it's in another post.

Chapter 5 The Mosaic of Eighteenth - Century America

Here is the study guide for Chapter 5. I guess I'll do this one in sections as the reading is assigned (for period 4), the entries for the last blog I did in the few days before the test, so the layout will have to be a little different [outline style??], but just hang with me here [someone should call Hank from Hank's History Hour and ask him to make some chapter recordings I could and would put up here, if you did I'd love you forever (did you guys hear that podcast where all he talked about was how he got into Dartmouth? What a braggart)]

update: right now, i'm going to try and fix a few sentences that are weird and attempt to get the photos to work for once.

update #2: all done!

This blog is best read while listening to Fuzzy Blue Lights by Owl City.

Chapter 5 Concepts and Terms

Introduction:
Of course we start off with the obvious. And I quote "...individuals throughout North America, especially native peoples, found life changing at an astonishing speed." Yes, please, what else is new. This chapter is pretty much about how newcomers (and current settlers) to North America had to adapt and adjust to difficulties that were created by overpopulation, tensions between countries, and social differences. Also, conflicts were started between the European powers, namely France, England, and Spain, about territorial and power disputes. These rivalries had their beginnings in Europe and flared regularly throughout the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries [1600-1700 for anyone who likes this way better]. However, an important point to note is that French forts neatly encircled England's colonies, confining their settlement to the eastern seaboard, which is the area this chapter talks about.

A. Forces of Division
Intro: The French and English who inhabited the north-eastern part of North America distrusted each other. However, the English never united to fight the French because they were split not only by ethnic and regional differences, but now also by racial and religious prejudices. The people of the colonial towns also found unification difficult because of distance problems, slow communication, and poor transportation. The colonial settlements of England were made up of an extremely diverse group of people.

I. Immigration and Natural Increase
There were many different types of people who made up the English colonies, including Africans, Germans, Scots, Swedes, Swiss, and Spanish Jews. The immigration of all these different people caused increased diversity in society, and many of these people became indentured servants. The American population was growing dramatically because of an increased natural birthrate and the influx of immigrants. (If the birthrate back then was three times what it is today [2.1], then wouldn't that mean 6 kids to family, and not eight? The book lies.)The population growth worldwide at this time is explained by a general improvement in climate which allowed for better harvests and the introduction of nutritional Indian crops to countries in Europe and in the Americas. This increase in population made it hard for colonials to share any common identity because they were all from different backgrounds.

II. Settlement of the Backcountry
It sounds bad to say that this is where they sent the rednecks, so we label this the "backcountry" (and I guess they weren't really rednecks). The basic point to know is that overpopulation in the established eastern seaboard communities led to the settlement of the backcountry. Newly-arrived immigrants and even native-born people were forced to set up new communities on the frontier. The frontier area included Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont [where Lake Champlain is!]. These people on the frontier were isolated from one another and the center of the town, which hindered strong social bonds. There was also economic isolation as well because they were above the fall line where ships could not reach them to promote the trade of goods or agriculture, and shipping over land was too expensive and risky. These people could not commonly afford slaves or servants, and were apparently religious even though they didn't go to church. [Good thing they weren't Pilgrims, or they'd be killed]Hard work was the main aspect of these peoples' lives.

(those are the frontier gunfighters)

III. Social Conflict on the Frontier
The people on the frontiers did not have the same rights in government and protection as did those on the eastern seaboard. The Paxton Boys were frontier settlers who marched to Philadelphia and complained to Benjamin Franklin who promised to help fix their grievances. (Whenever Benjamin Franklin is mentioned in this chapter, you know a pointless story is coming.) The frontier vs. "eastern seaboard" is referred to in the book as East vs. West. The Regulations were protest movements that emerged in South and North Carolina between the government and the frontier settlers. In South Carolina, the people of the backcountry wanted the government to provide them with protection from the outlaws that tortured them. Only when the 'vigilantes' , as the book calls them, threatened to march on Charleston did the political leaders extend their protection westward.

[the paxton boys, gang fight with the Indians]

Westerers in NC organized their Regulation to protest the corruption of their local government, not the absence of one like the South Carolinans had. However, Easterners crushed the Regulators at the Battle of Almance in 1771, giving the North Carolinians with an enduring hostility toward the seaboard. Also, ethnic divisions caused greater problems among the people of the East and the West. Many English colonials regarded these new immigrants and settlers on the frontier as culturally inferior and politically destructive.

IV. Boundary Disputes and Tenant Wars
Basically all that's here is that colonies fought over their boundaries: the most serious of which was when people from New York fought against farmers from New England in Virginia known as Ethan Allen and the Green Mountain Boys (isn't that a furniture/coffee brand?). Also, tenants in this area turned against their landlords and refused to pay rent, and they formed mobs as well.

Oh, here's the coffee, it's delicious, buy it at Publix.

Yes! FINALLY I was able to fix the pictures.

V. Eighteenth-Century Seaports (1700s)

The population of the coastal cities was swelling at this time. Society in these areas was made up of many different levels of politically and socially unequal people. Commerce was managed by the merchants who tapped the wealth of the surrounding regions. Wealth brought these merchants political power which allowed them to dominate city governments. Artisans (skilled crafts workers) made up the middle class of this society. The free and bound workers were at the bottom of the social order. As for slavery, there was an influx of black male slaves at this time because Europe had reduced the supply of white indentured servants. As for the women's issue, women had a little bit more freedom than the women of Plymouth had, and women in the East spent less time on domestic work than did farming wives and daughters. Women had more occupational opportunities, but they still worked at home most of the time. The wealthy could entertain themselves by going to concerts or seeing plays. The wealthy though were dependent on commerce for the maintenance of their social status, which was extremely finicky. The ups and downs of seaport economies combined with the influx of immigrants swelled the ranks of the poor in all cities by the mid 1750s. City governments provided a type of welfare almost, and gave out small amounts of money, food, and firewood. Epidemics and fires occurred with greater frequency in congested seaports than in the countryside.

I'm putting a picture here because now I just can.

VI. Social Conflict in Seaports
A large diversity of people made up the cities on the eastern seaboard, which caused ethnic divisions that were enlarged by religious differences. Class resentment also stirred unrest. Impressment was the attempt by England to force colonial to serve in the British navy.

B. Slave Societies in the Eighteenth-Century South
So, basically this chapter talks about the slave society and the divisions in it, whether it be between whites and blacks or between African-born slaves and American-born slaves. Pretty much all of the black population lived in the South and worked on tobacco and rice plantations. There were differences between the lives of slaves in the Chesapeake and the Lower South region. Slaves sent to the Lower South were only one of many, and therefore had limited contact with the white population. Their work was also really difficult as it was extremely time consuming. [which I wouldn't know as I'm pretty sure I've never been to a rice farm]However, the "task system" of labor gave slaves more freedom because once they were one for the day, they were able to go home (unlike after cross-country or track meets). Half of the slaves in the Lower South were African-born. Slaves in the Chesapeake area lived on small plantations and most of them were African-born. They also had more contact with whites.
[so I really wanted to know what rice growing looks like, and the article where I got it from says this is black market rice, whatever that is]


I. The Slave Family and Community
The Africans who survived the Middle Passage and seasoning still had some challenges to overcome, such as not knowing anyone, speaking a different language, and a host of demands from their masters, which was basically covered in the last few chapters. The main point is that there were divisions among slaves born in America and slaves born in Africa. The native-born African Americans enjoyed better health, command of English, and experience in dealing with whites. There was also competition among them to start families. However, these tensions began to subside when the importation of slaves began to slow and the rate of births among native blacks started to climb. This calmed the African v. American black problem, and stronger family and social ties were able to be established. Elaborate kinship networks gradually developed, often extending over several plantations in a single neighborhood. The only problem remained that members of the family could be separated if they were sold to different areas. Native-born Africans brought with them distinctive African culture and merged it into the American slave communities.

(so I guess this a Maroon, I don't really know)

II. Slavery and Colonial Society in French Louisiana
I really wish every paragraph of this chapter didn't start off with some sentence about diversity. It's so cliche. Anyway, this section talks about French slaves in the Mississippi area. They were mostly men, and were imported by the French settlers there who wanted to try and create large plantations. The colonists in New Orleans pushed the French authorities into importing bound laborers through the Company of the Indies. This backfired in two ways, because first of all their crops were dreadful in comparison with the quality of the English and secondly the influx of black slaves challenged French control. This lead to the Natchez Revolt which caused the French authorities to stop importing slaves. The slaves in Louisiana enjoyed greater freedoms than any other slaves in the American south.

(This is a pic of the Natchez Indians)

III. Slave Resistance in Eighteenth - Century British North America
British North America had no shortage of slaves who resisted captivity, but they did it in a variety of ways. A popular, but somewhat dense, option was to run off into the forest in groups called "Maroons" which were pretty easily detected. Still others pretended they either had a low IQ or were lazy or only spoke Latin (I made that last one up). Some even walked through the woods for weeks at a time. More infrequently, black rebellion took direct and violent form, for example see the Stono Rebellion in South Carolina of 1739. However, slave rebellions were less common in America than in the Caribbean or Brazil because they "determined that the cons outweighed the pros", but who knows if this is really the case, because our book's authors are extremely opinionated.

C. Enlightenment and Awakening in America
Do we really need to discuss this? We did this last year in Euro. Oh, and check out the first paragraph to see how it mentions diversity. I wish someone would taboo that word for the rest of the chapter.

I. The Enlightenment in America
Fine, we'll do this. The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement that started in Europe during the seventeenth century. For all of you who've forgotten or just didn't care last year, philosophes were French philosophers (although it sounds like 'philosopher' and 'sophomore' put together- that can't be right) To sum everything up, the Enlightenment only had an impact on the educated, wealthy members of American society. The outlook of most colonials was not affected, causing dissimilarity. (Ha, I found a way to avoid writing diversity by being diverse, how ironic). Rational Christianity emerged as a result of Enlightenment principles and led to the Great Awakening. These people and preachers stressed that God is a benevolent creator who wants to give salvation to everyone. George Whitefield is the need-to-know name for this area. He helped to fuel these revivals.

[that is supposed to be Voltaire, even though I don't remember if he is in this chapter or not]

II. The Great Awakening
See section above, I kind of just included it. If that bothers you, just read pg. 126 in the book.

III. The Aftermath of the Great Awakening
Whitefield left behind a raging storm of controversy. The popular ministers of the revivals came to be called 'itinerants' who traveled from town to town. Revivals intensified religious heterogeneity. We can just bag the rest of this section, because my laptop only has 39 minutes left before it dies, and everything important has been covered.

D. Anglo-American Worlds of the Eighteenth Century
This section is deep. Most Americans prided themselves on being English. Colonials established towns and named them after places in England, and modeled their government on political models. However, American society had developed in ways significantly different from that of Great Britain. It was better (in my opinion, and apparently also the authors' of the book [who are lacking]) to be English in America than English in England.

(look, it's an English sheep)

I. English Economic and Social Development
The multifariousness between England and America began with their economies. England had a much greater economy than that of America, where farming limited the scale of commerce, and kept towns on the smaller side in the 1700s.

[sorry about the really big words, but I'm using a thesaurus to avoid saying diversity too many times]

II. The Consumer Revolution
Even though the above is true, England's more advanced economy drew the colonies and the parent country together as a consumer revolution transformed the lives of all English people. There was an increase in consumer goods, that were imported and exported between both America and England for relatively good prices. Ordinary people began to own a wider variety of things.

Pointless things I've owned include furbies.

III. Inequality in England and America
There was an abundance of poor people in England. The contrast between the luxuries enjoyed by the wealthy few Londoners and the misery of the many disquieted colonial observers. England had deep class distinctions between the wealthy and the poor. England's gentlemen also held political power. In the colonies, even the wealthiest colonial families lived in far less magnificence than their English counterparts. The lower class in England was more numerous than those in America and was worse off. This was because there was cheap land and labor was scarce. Colonials were both fascinated and repelled by English society. They were impressed by the luxurious lifestyles of the upper-class, but recognized the idleness and corruption of society as a sign of a degenerate nation.

IV. Politics in England and America
Colonials thought that the 'balanced constitution' that England was supposed to operate on was a great idea, but the reality of the fact was that the English constitution was mocked. The monarch bribed people to vote for its executive members in Parliament. Royal patronage was used to manipulate parliamentary elections. Basically England's balanced constitution was supposed to give order of English society some measure of representation for the common people, but the Crown was able to bribe members of Parliament, and therefore many large cities had no reps, alas. Americans liked to think that their colonial governments mirrored the ideal English constitution. The structure was similar, but underneath the facade royal governors had much more power than the English Crown, but they could not abuse it because there were too many voters in America to bribe. Representation was also apportioned according to population far more equitably than in England.

(that's an American mansion, but let's pretend it's in England okay?)

V. The Imperial System before 1760
The English thought about their colonies little, nor did they understand them. The British waved off the American colonies and believed the colonials to be less civilized than themselves (ha but we so owned them in the Revolution). The English system of administration in the colonies was disorganized and indifferent. Parliament made no real efforts to assert its authority in America. The very weakness of imperial oversight left Americans with a great deal of freedom. Most Americans obeyed imperial regulations: only sugar, molasses, and tea were routinely smuggled. But then changes began to occur, which the book merely hints at in this section.

E. Toward the Seven Years' War
1754. That's the only important print in this introduction.

(this is what happens when you Google 1754)

I. The Albany Congress
The British had chat with the Iroquois because they wanted the Iroquois backing if war broke out between the English and the French. The Iroquois pretty much remained neutral because if the English won they would probably take over Indian land and raise the prices of the goods they sold. Benjamin Franklin (who is mentioned several times in the chapter, but only once here, because all the sentences about him were asinine) presented to the other colonial delegates a plan for the different colonies to unite for the defense of everyone. No one really went for this. However, the book does provide us with THE weirdest and most awkward quote I've ever read.

II. Washington at Fort Necessity
Washington tried to lead an expedition against the French Fort Duquesne, but failed. The book says "Washington had no future as a soldier". Clearly, that was not the case. I don't know if the authors of the book skipped school the day they taught about Washington, or they think they're witty or funny, which they are neither. They're just annoying.

(this one's a winner)
That's about it. The closing statement just explains that these backcountry wars were turning global. Also, those wars would alter the basic relationship between colonials and their parent nation. Yay, the end! Sorry for the novel.

Terms to Know for Chapter 4 Part Two

Here is part two of the Chapter 4 terms...let's see if I can do this before the battery on my laptop runs out

Part Two:

21. Massachusetts Bay Company- Congregationalists: merchants, landed gentlemen, and lawyers who organized the Massachusetts Bay Company in 1629. These Puritan aimed to build a better society in America; obtained a royal charter confirming its title to most of Massachusetts and New Hampshire; Salem established north of Plymouth; John Winthrop was the governor; established town of Boston, transformed the charter of the company into the basis for government (aka Massachusetts Bay Colony)

22. John Winthrop- stockholder in the Massachusetts Bay Company, also the company's first government's chief executive; governor, assistants, and freemen (company stockholders) made up the General Court; he was a tough-minded and visionary lawyer; wanted to build a godly "city on a hill" that would serve as an example to the world; the General Court passed all laws, levied taxes, established courts, and made war and peace. After 1634 meetings became more localized

23. New England (demographic and social)- people lived to the average age of 70; 90% of children survived to adulthood (what are those stats now?); New England's population increased naturally while the southern population's population grew only through immigration and the importation of slaves; New Englanders arrived in groups rather than as young, indentured servants who unsettled society; the women to men ration was fairly balanced

[Is it time for a picture yet?]

24. Family Institutions- New Englanders established tightly knit communities; almost every adult male owned property; strong family institutions contributed to order and stability; multi-generation families living together; fathers had greater authority over even their grown children

25. Churches- constituted the center of colonial life in New England; new members had to show proof of 'conversions'; ministers did not serve as officers in the civil government, and the Congregational churches owned no property, individual congregations ran and regulated their own affairs

26. Thomas Hooker- the minister of Cambridge who led his congregation to Connecticut where they established the first English settlement; more liberal than other Bay Puritans; favored more lenient standards for Church membership

[don't you wonder what he looked like]

27. Roger Williams- Rhode Island's founder; came to New England in 1631 and served as a respected minister in Salem. However, he later endorsed full religious toleration and urged a more complete separation of church and state; announced that he was a Separatist and wanted the Bay Colony to break all ties with the Church of England; which didn't go over well, exiled to Rhode Island, where they exiled all the crazies apparently

27.5 Hutchinson- I don't feel the need to talk about her, she's in the same boat with Hooker and Williams

28. New England women- [finally, women's issues; not that we're excited about this, because it probably won't be on the AP exam :p]; Women in colonial New England were offered little scope for their talents, especially if they were married; most adult women = hardworking farm wives who took care of the family and planted gardens and other chores; had mundane lives of doing the same thing over again (like this class, it's our third year: seriously) women were also at legal disadvantages, and couldn't sue or be sued (bonus); women had no control over property, and could not vote in colonial elections; the one area they could attain something approaching equal standards with men was in the church

29. Witchcraft- [you just know a good picture is coming up soon :)] ; assertive women in communities were accused of being witches (if that were the case today, Hilary Clinton = witch, Marilyn Monroe = witch, Taylor Swift = not so much) ; New Englanders believed in witches and wizards and 344 people were charged with being involved with Satan, but only 20 were killed; most of the accused devil worshipers were women

[the bottom says: making evil look innocent; I like this one, it's funny]

30. English expansion consequences- even though there were similarities between Puritans and Indians (such as relying on fishing, hunting, and cultivating for food: who doesn't?) English expansion in the area came at the Indian's expense; Indian land was gained in one of three ways: 1. Sometimes purchased but the sales were not always honest

2. Colonists took over land emptied by disease

3. Colonists encouraged and participated in regional wars to obtain native lands

New England settlers studied Indian feuds to better exploit them; colonial forces joined the Narragansetts in a campaign against the Pequots and set fire to their main village and killed hundreds of natives (Pequot war); and eventually the colonists turned on their former allies to get their land

31. John Eliot- tried to bring the word of God to the Indians; he preached in Algonquain in the 1640s and oversaw a project to publish the scriptures in Algonquin using the Latin alphabet; established 'praying towns'; like Harvard who participated in missions as well and established Indian colleges and dormitories on campus to instruct the Wampanoag youth in the English language and in Protestantism; however the book mentions that these efforts did not embody respect for Indian culture or religion

32. Metacom- Masasoit's son whom the English called King Philip; thought he could preserve his nation only by chancing war; he rallied most of southern New England's native peoples and laid waste to Plymouth Colony; but he couldn't keep it up and he was defeated by the English who had allied with the Mohawks; and was killed; "King Philip's War" inflicted twice the casualties on New England that the United States as a whole would suffer in the American Civil War, in proportion to the population

[photo opp]

33. The Mid-Atlantic Colonies- included New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware; colonists here enjoyed more secure lives than most southern colonial people. The English took over New York after the Dutch moved out (see Part 1), the Dutch resented English rule and James was not a good ruler and would not allow for the Charter of Liberties, which would have guaranteed basic political rights. New Jersey was disorganized: it was the Duke of York's propriety grant, he gave it to some friends, who guaranteed settlers religious freedom and a representative assembly if they would be good and pay their quintrets, but then New York's governor gave Long Island Puritans land there; the friends of the Duke of York (Berkeley and Carteret) decided to split New Jersey into two parts, and it became a patchwork of religious and ethnic groups; 1702 the Crown reunited it as a single colony. Pennsylvania was founded by William Penn and inhabited by Quakers

34. Diversity (ethnic and religious)- we're going to divide this up

• New York- after James (the Grand Ole Duke of York, he had ten thousand men, never mind) defeated the Dutch for control of the area, but the area was hard to govern because the people who made it up came from many various backgrounds, such as Dutch, Belgians, French, English, Portuguese, Swedes, Finns, and Africans
• New Jersey- when it was split in half, both halves were sold to Quaker investors which upset New Jersey's Puritan inhabitants, settlers who shared a common religion or national origin formed communities and established small family farms
• Pennsylvania- a haven for Quakers, but colonists also included Catholics, Lutherans, Baptists, Anglicans, and Presbyterians, and later Scandinavian peoples

35. New Jersey- pretty much already gave a good summary of this fine area, the main points are that it was sold to many different people many different times and it became a patchwork of religious and ethnic groups before it was reunited by the Crown in 1702

36. Quakers- people who dressed in a deliberately plain manner, withheld the customary marks of respect from their superiors, refused to go to war, and allowed women public roles in worship. (how different are they from angsty, Amish teenagers who participate in Evangelism Explosion?- not that that happens) William Penn founded Pennsylvania; also known as the Society of Friends; had egalitarian ideals and believed that all men and women shared equally in the "Light Within"

37. William Penn- a Quaker who was friends with King Charles II, founded Pennsylvania; Charles did this on purpose because the king was either paying Penn back for the large sum of money his father had lent the Stuarts or he considered it convenient that his trusted friend was able to get all of the Quakers out of England and keep an eye on them; Penn envisioned that his proprietary colony would provide a refuge for Quakers while producing quintrets for himself; he distributed pamphlets praising his colony throughout England and Europe; Quakers from other colonies also flocked to Pennsylvania (please read page 102 'Patterns of Growth')

38. Charter of Privileges- 1701 Pennsylvania's new constitution which stripped the council of its legislative power and left only the role of the advising governor; it also limited Penn's privileges as proprietor to the ownership of ungranted land

39. Royal intervention- [could be made into a reality show on MTV] King James II (formerly the Duke of York) pushed the Lords of Trade to consolidate the colonies of Connecticut, Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island, and New Hampshire into a single entity to be ruled by a royal governor and a royally appointed council. Add New York and New Jersey, and you've got the new Dominion of New England; representative government was abolished there; this experiment was short lived as the Glorious Revolution occurred and William and Mary were placed on the throne

40. Glorious Revolution- a bloodless coup d' etat in which Parliament forced James into exile in 1688 and placed William of Orange (who was Dutch) and Mary on the throne.

41. William and Mary dissolved the Dominion of New England and reinstated representative assemblies everywhere in the northern colonies. Massachusetts, Plymouth, and present day Maine were combined into a single royal colony headed by a governor appointed by the Crown rather than elected by the people

42. Enforcement of Navigation Acts- Parliament had to enlarge the number of customs officials stationed in each colony to enforce the Navigation Acts in 1696 and persecuted smugglers; the Board of Trade replaced the old Lords of Trade; these procedures were pretty effective; royal governments had been established in Virginia, New York, Massachusetts, and New Hampshire with New Jersey, the Carolinas, Georgias (totally forgot about them) would be added soon. (Maryland remains free!)

Okay, that completes Part Two- for anything not clearly explained it will be in After the Fact, so read that again before the test :)

Terms to Know for Chapter 4 Part One

So I wrote these out last night before I knew we were going to have terms given to us, and because of that they don't match up word for word. But I went over them again and they have everything you need to know, some "terms" are just explained inside other terms, but everything's there. And these are going to be in two parts okay?

Part One:

1. Samuel de Champlain- established Quebec to pursue the fur trade; allied himself with local tribes including the Hurons; Frenchmen gave Indians goods; he encouraged more immigration to Canada and also had French people live with the Indians to learn their ways; engaged the Jesuits; Champlain died just before the old rivalry between the Hurons and the Iroquois League was revived (Cartier was the first guy who explored the Canadian area for France) [there's a Lake Champlain up in VT where they have these cliffs people go cliff jumping off of into the lake, it's pretty intense, and I found a pic!!!]

2. Relations with Indians- Champlain was greeted warmly by Hurons, Algonquins, and Montagnais, but to prove his loyalty he accompanied them on a campaign against the Mohawks and killed two of their chiefs; Indians became partners with French in the fur trade, but Champlain forced Jesuits missions upon the natives; French pressure caused friction in native communities

3. Fur trade- French traded with Indians for tens of thousands of otter, racoon, and beaver pelts; mainland France dismissed Quebec as a comptoir, but it earned profitable revenues; drew the attention of the Dutch; impacted by the collapse of the beaver population (beaver pelts were valuable because they were waterproof, who knew?)

4. Quebec- established by Samuel de Champlain in 1608. Economy revolved around the fur trade, part of New France; most immigrants to New France eventually returned to Europe

5. Couriers de bois- 'runners in the woods' were French men and boys Champlain encouraged to live with Indian families and learn their language and customs; used this system to bind his native allies closer and closer to the colonial project; and showed that the French were more observant of the native people than the English and the Spanish (remember that thought)

6. Jesuits- memebers of the Society of Jesus, a result of the Counter-Reformation which we obviously don't need to discuss; they were Catholic missionaries; more flexible than the Franciscans, they set up missions among the native peoples; Christian Indians recieved better prices for their furs, but French religious pressure on Indians to accept European customs and religion caused friction among native communities and in Huron societies

[You know you've always wanted to see a picture of one of these]

7. Dutch colonies- the Dutch had little desire to plant permanent colonies abroad because they enjoyed prosperity and freedom of religion at home; but they wanted to tap into North American wealth; established New netherlands in Connecticut and Delaware area; Iroquois League traded with Dutch and had access to weapons to use against the Hurons, sold plundered pelts to the Dutch, because beaver population had collapsed in their area

8. Dutch West India Company- established trading outpost at Fort Orange in Albany; appointed corrupt, dictatorial governors who ruled without an elective assembly; went bankrupt in 1654 and virtually abandoned its North American colonies; James Duke of York took over the New Netherlands for England

9. Iroquois League- made up of the Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas and Senecas; gained access to European goods through the Dutch; fought the Hurons in the Beaver Wars; destroyed the Hurons and sought new hunting grounds and new captives to replenish their diminishing populations

10. Beaver Wars- during the 17th century; fought between Iroquois League (Mohawks) and other native tribes including the Hurons; sparked by the collapse of the beaver population, the arrival of French and Duthc, disease in the 1630s, and the dramatic expansion in regional arms trade; a series of conflicts as profoundly transformative for the colonial north as the Indian slave wars were for the south

11. Iroquois and Hurons- old rivals; fought each other during the Beaver wars; traded with the Dutch and French respectively; Iroquois defeated and dispersed the Hurons [when I say Iroquois, if you want to, you can insert 'Mohawks', or another interesting term of you choice such as the name of an administrator at our school: it makes the story more interesting =P]

12. French migration- the Beaver Wars almost led to the destruction of New France; the conflict compelled the French to take a more expansive view of the continent; French moved to Western Great Lakes (pays d'en haut); explored the Mississippi region- seemed stratigic key to success in North America; courted native peoples as they encountered them and impressed them with their knowledge of Indian ways (the book probably made that up- the Indians weren't impressed)

13. Mississippi colonization- New France set up colonies in the Mississippi region, helped broker an uneasy peace between the Iroquois and native peoples to the West; they extended their influence over a vast region; and fortified its colonial core along the St. Lawrence. French hoped that their native allies could help contain the Spanish to the West and limit English expansion to the East

14. Huguenots- French Calvinists; Canada was off-limits to them because the King of France deemed New France an only Catholic area; the Princeton AP reviews says that the Huguenots were happy to stay in France because the Edict of Nantes had been passed, but the author (who seems crazy) didn't account for when that Edict was pulled...

15. Puritans- 'radical' Presbyterians or Congregationalnists who belived that England's government hampered rather than promoted religious purity and social order; they also thought that the State had not done enough to purify the corruptions in the English Church; wished to limit membership and the privileges of baptism and communion to godly men and women

[Puritan cartoon time!]

[okay, you know it's funny! I found that when we were doing our Puritan projects for English]

16. James I- succeeded Elizabeth I in 1603; vowed to purge England of all radical Protestant reformers, pushed the Separatists out of England; 1624 turns Virginia into a royal colony

17. Separatists- devout Congregationalists who concluded that the Chruch of Egnland was too corrupt to be reformed; believed in predestination; originally moved first to Holland and then to Virginia; landed in Plymouth, MA; leader was William Bradford; by spring 1621 half the immigrants had died

18. Plymouth- place where the Pilgrims landed; might have become another doomed colony if the native people had not helped them; the Wampanoags dominated the lands around Plymouth; in the eyes of English law, the Plymouth settlers had no clear basis for their land claims or their government, for they had neither a royal charter nor approval from the Crown

19. Wampanoag- native people who lived in the lands around Plymouth; their chief's name was Masasoit, agreed to help starving colonists and were eager to obtain trade goods and assistance against native enemies; Squanto spoke English and helped them cultivate crops

20. Mayflower Compact- framework of Puritan government; provided for a governor and several assistants to advise him, elected annually by Plymouth's adult males

This is the end of Part One, Part Two will be up before midnight!

Chapter 3 and 4 Web Study Guide

Here's a general outline on Chapters 3 and 4 I found online and think it's pretty decent and a good summary for review

General Outline

Just as the English established a set of goals and strategies for their first outpost on Chesapeake Bay, so too did the native Indians of that region pursue their own aims and interests. The werowance (or chief) Powhatan had recently consolidated the region's Indians into a powerful confederacy. Powhatan used the new English newcomers to advance his own longstanding objectives. Although he considered the new colonists a nuisance, Powhatan welcomed trade goods and English weapons as a means to consolidate his political authority and to fend off challenges from the Piedmont tribes.

English Society on the Chesapeake
After Powhatan's death, the English presence proved more threatening to than supportive of his confederacy's control over the Chesapeake. As the tobacco crop began to boom, the Virginia Company transported an increasing number of white settlers into Virginia; some were free men and women, but the vast majority were indentured servants, who signed labor contracts that committed their work and its products to a master for a certain number of years. The spread of English plantations built by this growing population encroached on tribal lands. Mounting tensions finally exploded in 1622 into full-scale armed conflicts between whites and Indians, resulting in appalling casualties on both sides, as well as a determination, on the part of the English, to destroy the "savage" Indians.

Another casualty of these hostilities was the Virginia Company itself, the joint-stock company that had overseen the early settlement of the colony. The King dissolved the company after an investigation revealed that mortality rates from disease and the abuse of servants far exceeded the casualties of the Indian war. Virginia then became a royal colony.

As the price of tobacco leveled off, a more coherent social and political order took shape in Virginia. Even so, tensions remained high, fueled by resentment at the settlement of Maryland, a proprietary colony ruled by the Calvert family. Maryland's tobacco economy competed with Virginia's, and led to the outbreak of another Indian war in 1644. Meanwhile, England did little to ease friction or direct development in the region because it became distracted by domestic political upheavals that culminated in its Civil War. With the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, however, Charles II launched a more consistent and watchful colonial policy. That year Parliament passed the first in a series of Navigation Acts designed to regulate colonial trade in ways that benefited England.

Chesapeake Society in Crisis
The Navigation Acts only intensified the forces propelling Chesapeake society toward a crisis. Local elites became divided and jealous, while freed servants and small planters found diminishing opportunities for themselves. Religious hatred and a renewal of hostilities with the Indians raised tensions further. Two civil wars resultedÐBacon's Rebellion in Virginia and Coode's Rebellion in Maryland.

Only the conversion from servitude to slavery as the region's dominant labor system finally eased the divisions within white society in the Chesapeake. As slavery became more cost effective, the growing presence (and implicit threat) of African Americans bonded whites of all classes and religions, and a racist consensus emerged. With their profits now secured by the exploitation of black rather than white labor, a new Chesapeake "gentry" encouraged the development of a prosperous and deferential small planter class.

From the Caribbean to the Carolinas
As the tobacco economy evolved in the seventeenth-century Chesapeake, a booming sugar economy also transformed the Caribbean into a slave-based plantation society. Land scarcity on the English island of Barbados fostered the settlement of South Carolina, another proprietary colony.

More prosperous than either North Carolina (its poor neighbor) or Virginia, South Carolina still remained vulnerable to attack from the neighboring French and Spanish. As with other proprietary colonies, South Carolina became divided by chronic political factions. The colony's social instability, which resulted from ethnic and religious diversity, high mortality rates, and strained relations with local Indian tribes, compounded these political squabbles. Worsening Indian relations resulted in the devastating Yamasee War in 1715, which brought the colony to the brink of dissolution and ended proprietary rule.

Reconstituted as a royal colony after 1729, South Carolina recovered its former prosperity by exporting rice and later indigo. Greater social and political harmony ensued mainly because whites recognized the need to unify against the threat posed by the slaves who supplied the skilled labor on plantations and who by this time constituted a majority of the inhabitants within the colony. At the same time, the founding of Georgia, a colony that developed a comparable economy and social structure, provided a buffer between South Carolinians and Spanish Florida.

The Spanish Borderlands
As the English colonies in southern North America took shape, the Spanish extended their empire into the American Southwest, scattering military garrisons and cattle ranches throughout the region. To incorporate the Indians into colonial society as docile servants and pious farmers and artisans, the Spanish relied on missions staffed by Dominican and Franciscan priests.

Despite the weakening of their populations by European diseases, the Indians still managed to defy Spanish cultural imperialism through a series of uprisings, the most successful of which was the Great Pueblo Revolt of 1680 in New Mexico. Like the English in the Chesapeake and the Carolinas, the Spanish in the Southwest encountered sustained resistance to their expansionism from Indian cultures. As a result, the hopes of empire or independence held by red, white, and black inhabitants suffered continual cruel defeats during the seventeenth century.

Chapter 4

Religion played a crucial role in shaping northern colonial settlement in North America. In Canada, the Catholic Counterreformation added a missionary zeal to early French exploration and colonization efforts. French Catholic missionaries, especially the Jesuits, helped to win acceptance for French soldiers, traders, and settlers among the native Indians of the Canadian interior. Perhaps most importantly, French colonists, who remained few in number, did not threaten Indian claims to land and political authority. At the same time, the impact of the Reformation in England played a major part in motivating the settlement of Puritan New England and later, the Quaker exodus to Pennsylvania. The Founding of New England While the French slowly established a fur trade, agricultural communities, and religious institutions in Canada, radical Puritans fleeing persecution and "corruption" in England planted more populous settlements between Maine and Long Island. The first New England settlers, the Separatists or "Pilgrims," were humble English farmers and craftsmen who had fled religious persecution in England and settled in the Netherlands. Concerns that their children were adopting Dutch customs prompted them to settle the Plymouth colony in 1620. A larger wave of Puritan migration first reached the shores of what became the colony of Massachusetts Bay in 1630. Led by John Winthrop, an English landowner and gentleman, this group of Puritan migrants was wealthier and more prominent than the Pilgrim Separatists. They differed, too, in continuing to regard themselves as members of the Church of England. Indeed, members of the new Massachusetts Bay Colony hoped that their settlement would become a model for social and religious reform back in England. New England Communities Although the Pilgrim Separatists of Plymouth and the Congregationalists of Massachusetts Bay and Connecticut differed in some ways, the New England colonies were more notable for their similarities. The distinguishing features of early New England society included rapid population growth through natural increase, large families headed by patriarchal fathers, reliance on subsistence agriculture and widespread land ownership, a rough economic equality, and an absence of bound labor. These economic and social factors lent stability to early New England society. So did the shared commitment to Puritanism, the organization of churches, and a strong tradition of self-government at both the town and colony level. In all of these respects, New England contrasted strikingly with the early American South. Despite its coherence and order, early New England did not lack conflict. Devout New Englanders often fought bitterly over the proper definition of Puritanism, while contests between white and Indian settlements erupted into violent confrontations--the Pequot War and Metacomet's War--as expansion proceeded westward. The Middle Colonies The Middle Colonies shared with New England comparable agrarian economies, systems of free labor, and patterns of rapid population growth. Unlike New England, however, all of the Middle Colonies were ruled by proprietary governments, like those in Maryland and South Carolina. Consequently, representative government remained weaker and civic life more embattled. Ethnic and religious antagonisms compounded the political strife in New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. Unlike homogeneously English and Puritan New England, the population of the Middle Colonies included a patchwork of diverse ethnic groups and religious denominations. In New York, for example, English Anglicans and Puritans, French Huguenots, Portuguese Jews, Scandinavian Lutherans, and African Americans, both enslaved and free, adhering to West African tribal religions joined the Dutch Calvinist settlers who had founded the colony as New Netherlands in 1624. Relations between whites and Indians in the Middle Colonies also developed differently. While the Puritans sought to subdue the New England tribes, New Yorkers conciliated the powerful league of the Iroquois in order to maintain a competitive edge over the French for the fur trade. And for many decades, Quaker Pennsylvanians coexisted peaceably with the Lenni Lenapes. Pennsylvania's Quakers practiced far greater tolerance toward both Native Americans and religious dissenters than did Puritan New Englanders. Even so, both Puritans and Quakers hoped to create religious utopias and representative governments in North America, model societies in which rulers, chosen by popular consent, promoted piety and morality. Adjustment to Empire The later Stuart monarchs, Charles II and James II, attempted to centralize England's American empire. Their efforts created serious disruptions of political life in every northern colony except newly established Pennsylvania. The crown's experiment in centralization, the Dominion of New England, ended with the Glorious Revolution in 1688: James II went into exile and was replaced on the throne by William and Mary. New England weathered these years of political instability without severe internal turmoil. New Yorkers, however, responded with violence and vicious political infighting in the wake of Leisler's Rebellion. The dismantling of the Dominion greatly reduced the tensions between England and its colonies. For more than half a century, English monarchs gave up efforts to impose a strict, centralized administration on America. All of the colonies continued to enjoy relative independence under an imperial policy of "benign neglect."